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Are Negative Online Reviews of Shops and Products Defamation under Thai Law?

A negative review of a shop or product is not an offense simply because it is critical. The dividing line is whether the reviewer imputes facts that are untrue, or expresses an opinion in good faith based on what they actually experienced.

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Key points

  • A negative review is defamation under Section 326 of the Criminal Code when it imputes a matter about the shop owner to a third person in a manner likely to impair the owner’s reputation or expose the owner to hatred or scorn, and it is defamation by publication under Section 328 when it is posted publicly.
  • Section 329 (3) protects an opinion or statement expressed in good faith by way of fair comment on any person or thing subjected to public criticism. Shops, and products offered for sale to the public, fall within this scope.
  • The Supreme Court reads the statement as a whole. Supreme Court Judgment No. 1724/2543 held that an article whose wording mocked a person beyond the matter being commented on could not be regarded as fair comment.
  • Civil liability under Section 423 of the Civil and Commercial Code arises from asserting or circulating as a fact that which is contrary to the truth. Supreme Court Judgment No. 7055/2539 held that a statement warning of a product’s risks that was not contrary to the truth was not a wrongful act.
  • Section 14 (1) of the Computer-related Crime Act expressly excludes conduct that is an offense of defamation under the Criminal Code. A review that imputes a matter about a shop owner is therefore assessed primarily under the Criminal Code.
  • A shop that considers itself defamed must lodge a criminal complaint within three months from the day it learns of the offense and the identity of the offender, under Section 96, and the case concerns a compoundable offense under Section 333.
  • England requires a body that trades for profit to prove serious financial loss, Germany names critical judgments of commercial achievements in the text of its statute, and the United States prohibits standard form contracts that bar customers from posting reviews.

A negative review of a shop or product on a website, an app or social media is defamation under Sections 326 and 328 of the Thai Criminal Code when it imputes facts that damage the shop owner’s reputation, but Section 329 (3) protects fair comment made in good faith. Civil liability under Section 423 of the Civil and Commercial Code arises only when the statement is contrary to the truth.

Contents
  1. When does a review meet the elements of defamation under Sections 326 and 328?
  2. Fair comment under Section 329 (3)
  3. Fact versus opinion in reviews, and Section 330
  4. Civil liability under Section 423 of the Civil and Commercial Code
  5. Online reviews and Section 14 of the Computer-related Crime Act
  6. Options for a shop that receives a negative review
  7. How to write a review that stays within the law
  8. Comparative law: England, Germany and the United States
  9. Law and economics and interdisciplinary perspectives
  10. Frequently asked questions

When does a review meet the elements of defamation under Sections 326 and 328?

A negative review is defamation under Section 326 of the Criminal Code when the reviewer imputes a matter about the shop owner or the manufacturer to a third person in a manner likely to impair that person’s reputation or expose them to hatred or scorn. A review posted on a website or app that the general public can read is publication by means of written text, so it falls under Section 328, which carries a heavier penalty.

The key element is to “impute”, meaning to assert a fact about an identifiable person. Reviews saying “this shop uses expired ingredients” or “the owner short-changes customers” assert facts that affect the shop owner’s reputation. A review saying “not to my taste, won’t be back” expresses the reviewer’s feelings about the product and does not impute anything to anyone.1

The injured person in a review case may be a natural person who owns the shop or a juristic person that operates the business. A shop named on a review platform already counts as an identifiable person. How the person defamed can be identified without being named is explained in the article Defamation without naming the person, and the general elements of the offense are set out in What is defamation?

Fair comment under Section 329 (3)

Section 329 (3) of the Criminal Code provides that a person who, in good faith, expresses an opinion or statement by way of fair comment on any person or thing subjected to public criticism is not guilty of defamation. Shops, hotels and products offered for sale to the public are things the public may naturally comment on. The conditions that must be met are good faith and fairness.

A condition common to every subsection of Section 329 is that the opinion or statement must be expressed “in good faith” (unofficial translation). A reviewer who actually used the service and describes what they experienced is in a position to claim good faith. A person who has never used the service but writes a negative review to damage a competitor fails this condition from the outset.2

The Supreme Court does not read a review or an article as isolated sentences. Supreme Court Judgment No. 1724/2543 dealt with an article that, by way of comparison, said the plaintiff “might more aptly be called a person hired to teach” and that “the behavior of people of this kind is utterly exasperating” (unofficial translation). The court held that, although some passages were explanations made in reply, “when read as a whole, it cannot be regarded as fair comment” (unofficial translation). The principle drawn from this case applies squarely to reviews: a review that starts with the product and then goes on to mock the shop owner personally risks falling outside Section 329 (3).3

Fact versus opinion in reviews, and Section 330

A single review often contains both facts and opinions. A fact is something that can be proved, such as waiting fifty minutes in a queue or receiving the wrong model of a product. An opinion is an evaluation, such as finding something not worth the price. Section 330 of the Criminal Code allows the truth of the matter alleged to be defamatory to be proved, except on personal matters where proving it would not benefit the public.

Section 330, paragraph one, provides that if the person accused can prove that the matter alleged to be defamatory is true, that person shall not be punished. Paragraph two prohibits such proof if the imputation concerns a personal matter and the proof would not benefit the public. The quality of goods and services sold to the public is something other consumers benefit from knowing, so it is not a personal matter under paragraph two, whereas the shop owner’s family life is a personal matter.4

In practice, the burden is one of evidence. A reviewer who asserts facts should keep receipts, photos of the product and their message exchanges with the shop from the day of the incident. Proof of truth is discussed in detail in the article Is posting the truth defamation?

Civil liability under Section 423 of the Civil and Commercial Code

Section 423 of the Civil and Commercial Code requires a person who asserts or circulates as a fact that which is contrary to the truth, and which is injurious to the reputation, credit or earnings of another, to pay compensation, even if they do not know that it is untrue, provided they ought to have known it. A shop can therefore sue for damages over a review when that review is contrary to the truth.

The requirement that sets this apart from a criminal case is “a statement contrary to the truth” (unofficial translation). A truthful review is not a wrongful act under this section, and the words “earnings or prosperity” (unofficial translation) cover business losses, such as a fall in sales after a review is published. Paragraph two exempts a person who passes on information without knowing it to be untrue, if that person or the recipient of the information has a rightful interest in it, for example a warning to fellow members of a consumer group who are about to buy the same product.5

Supreme Court Judgment No. 7055/2539 is an example of comment on a product. A newspaper published a warning that drugs containing caffeine were dangerous and called the plaintiff’s drug “a new pep-up drug” (unofficial translation). The Supreme Court held that the statement “conveyed to the public that there was a risk of harm” (unofficial translation), and that the statement that the drug had come under suspicion as an imitation amphetamine was “raised by way of comparison and was not an assertion” (unofficial translation). It was therefore “not a statement contrary to the facts, and so not a wrongful act against the plaintiff” (unofficial translation).6

Once a review falls under Section 423, the court determines the amount of damages according to the circumstances and the gravity of the wrongful act, and may order the reviewer to restore the shop’s reputation instead of, or together with, damages. The details are in How much can you claim in a defamation suit? (Thai)

Online reviews and Section 14 of the Computer-related Crime Act

Section 14 (1) of the Computer-related Crime Act B.E. 2550 (2007), as amended in B.E. 2560 (2017), punishes dishonestly or deceitfully bringing false computer data into a computer system, provided the act is one “which is not an offense of defamation under the Criminal Code” (unofficial translation). A review that makes an imputation against a shop owner is therefore assessed primarily under the Criminal Code.

This wording separates matters of a person’s reputation from Section 14 (1). Section 14, paragraph two, applies to an act under (1) that is committed “not against the public but against a particular person” (unofficial translation), and makes it a compoundable offense. An example that may fall under Section 14 (1) is a large number of fake reviews created dishonestly to deceive consumers, which is a matter of damage to the public, not of the shop’s reputation.7

The relationship between the Criminal Code and the Computer-related Crime Act in online defamation cases is explained in detail in the article Defamation and Section 14 of the Computer-related Crime Act (Thai)

Options for a shop that receives a negative review

A shop that believes a review makes a false imputation has three options: respond to the review with facts, report it to the platform under its terms of service, or take legal action. In a criminal case, a criminal complaint must be lodged within three months from the day the injured person learns of the offense and the identity of the offender, under Section 96 of the Criminal Code, and the offense is a compoundable offense.

A factual reply to a review, such as the order date, the steps the shop took and an offer to put things right, often works better with readers of the review than a lawsuit. If the shop intends to take legal action, it must preserve evidence of the review, with the URL and the date and time, before the reviewer deletes it, and it must be careful, because a reply that accuses the reviewer may itself become defamation.8

The steps for lodging a criminal complaint and how the three-month prescription period is counted are covered in the article Filing a police complaint for online defamation (Thai). Reviewers who have had a police complaint filed against them can read about their rights and defenses in Accused of online defamation (Thai)

How to write a review that stays within the law

Reviews that stay within Section 329 (3) of the Criminal Code and Section 423 of the Civil and Commercial Code share three features: they come from the reviewer’s own actual experience, they separate facts that can be proved from opinion, and they address the product or service without extending to the shop owner as a person or to the owner’s private life.

  • Describe what happened, with dates and times, for example: food ordered at 12:10 and received at 13:00.
  • Write opinions as opinions, for example “In my view, it isn’t worth the price,” instead of asserting as fact something you do not know for certain, such as “This shop uses old ingredients.”
  • Do not use demeaning or abusive language about people, because courts read the whole review together, following the approach in Supreme Court Judgment No. 1724/2543.
  • Keep receipts, photos and your messages with the shop as evidence.

Comparative law: England, Germany and the United States

Like Thai law, foreign law separates reviews that express opinions from false statements of fact. England applies sections 1(2) and 3 of the Defamation Act 2013, Germany applies § 193 of the Criminal Code (StGB) and § 824 of the Civil Code (BGB), and the United States applies the Consumer Review Fairness Act, which prohibits contract terms that gag consumers.

England sets a high bar for businesses that sue. Section 1(2) of the Defamation Act 2013 provides that harm to the reputation of a body that trades for profit is not serious harm unless it has caused or is likely to cause the body serious financial loss. Section 3 sets out the defense of honest opinion with three conditions: the statement is an opinion, it indicates the basis of the opinion, and an honest person could have held that opinion on the basis of facts that existed at the time of publication.9

Germany writes this into the statute itself. StGB § 193 provides that “critical judgments of scientific, artistic or commercial achievements” are punishable only insofar as an insult is evident from the form of the statement or the circumstances. BGB § 824 imposes civil liability for asserting or circulating, contrary to the truth, a fact that harms another person’s earnings, and exempts a person passing on information who has a legitimate interest in it. The structure of both paragraphs of § 824 is close to that of Section 423 of the Thai Civil and Commercial Code.10

The United States protects reviewers against contract terms. Under 15 U.S.C. § 45b(b)(1), a provision of a standard form contract that prohibits or restricts reviews, imposes a penalty for posting a review, or compels the transfer of rights in review content is void from the inception of the contract. Paragraph (2), however, preserves civil causes of action for defamation and a website owner’s right to remove reviews that are clearly false or misleading.11

Legal systemBasis of liabilityDefenses or protection for reviewers
ThailandCriminal Code, Sections 326 and 328 · Civil and Commercial Code, Section 423Fair comment in good faith, Criminal Code, Section 329 (3) · Proof of truth under Section 330
EnglandDefamation Act 2013, section 1A business must prove serious financial loss · Honest opinion under section 3
GermanyStGB §§ 186 and 187 · BGB § 824Critical judgments of commercial achievements under StGB § 193 · Legitimate interest under BGB § 824(2)
United StatesDefamation claims under state lawStandard form contract terms prohibiting reviews are void under 15 U.S.C. § 45b

For readers in Thailand, the comparison leads to two conclusions. First, every system protects opinions with a factual basis and does not protect false statements of fact, so a review that gives the reasons for its opinion is safer in every system. Second, Thai law does not yet have a provision like 15 U.S.C. § 45b, so a contract term prohibiting customers from posting reviews must be assessed under the general principles of contract law.

Law and economics and interdisciplinary perspectives

Marketing and economics research confirms that reviews have a real effect on sales. Chevalier and Mayzlin (2006) found that one-star reviews affect book sales more than five-star reviews, and Mayzlin, Dover and Chevalier (2014) found evidence that businesses have an incentive to write fake reviews. These findings explain why the law separates opinions expressed in good faith from false statements of fact.

In marketing, Chevalier and Mayzlin studied book sales on Amazon.com and BarnesandNoble.com and found that better reviews lead to higher sales and that “the impact of 1-star reviews is greater than the impact of 5-star reviews.” This finding shows that the harm to earnings under Section 423 caused by negative reviews is real, measurable damage, not merely a matter of the shop owner’s feelings.12

In law and economics, Mayzlin, Dover and Chevalier compared hotel reviews on Expedia, which lets only customers who have actually booked post reviews, with TripAdvisor, which lets anyone post, and found that the neighbors of hotels with a high incentive to post fake reviews have more negative reviews on TripAdvisor. This suggests that some negative reviews come from competitors, not customers. The requirement in Section 329 that an opinion be expressed “in good faith” (unofficial translation) and the requirement in Section 423 of “a statement contrary to the truth” (unofficial translation) therefore serve to separate consumer reviews, which benefit the market, from competitors’ reviews, which distort it.13

Frequently asked questions

Common questions from reviewers and shop owners about negative reviews cover opinions about taste, accusing a shop of cheating, suing under the Computer-related Crime Act, the three-month prescription period under Section 96 of the Criminal Code, and contract terms that prohibit reviews. Each answer cites the relevant provisions directly.

Is it defamation under Thai law to say in a review that a restaurant’s food isn’t tasty?
Generally, no. Calling food not tasty is an opinion about a product and does not impute a fact about the shop owner, and Section 329 (3) of the Criminal Code protects fair comment in good faith on any thing subjected to public criticism.
Is it an offense to post a review saying a shop cheats its customers or uses expired ingredients?
Such a review asserts a fact that affects the shop owner’s reputation, so it may fall under Sections 326 and 328 of the Criminal Code. The reviewer must be able to prove its truth under Section 330, and if the statement is contrary to the truth, the shop can claim damages under Section 423 of the Civil and Commercial Code.
Can a shop sue a reviewer under the Computer-related Crime Act?
Section 14 (1) of the Computer-related Crime Act applies to an act which is not an offense of defamation under the Criminal Code. A review that makes an imputation against a shop owner is therefore assessed primarily under Sections 326 and 328 of the Criminal Code.
How many months does a shop have to file a police complaint?
Defamation is a compoundable offense. The shop must lodge a criminal complaint within three months from the day it learns of the offense and the identity of the offender, under Section 96 of the Criminal Code; otherwise, the case is barred by prescription.
Can a shop include a contract term prohibiting customers from posting reviews?
Thai law does not yet have a specific provision on this, so the matter must be assessed under the general principles of contract law. In the United States, 15 U.S.C. § 45b makes a provision of a standard form contract that prohibits or restricts reviews void from the inception of the contract.
※Notes · Statutes and judgments cited
  1. ↩ Criminal Code, Section 326: “Whoever imputes anything to another person before a third person in a manner likely to impair the reputation of such other person or to expose such other person to be hated or scorned is said to commit defamation, and shall be liable to imprisonment not exceeding one year, or a fine not exceeding twenty thousand baht, or both.” · Section 328: “If the offense of defamation is committed by means of publication of a document, drawing, painting, cinematographic film, picture or letters made visible by any means, gramophone record or any other recording instruments, recording picture or recording letters, or by broadcasting or spreading picture, or by propagation by any other means, the offender shall be liable to imprisonment not exceeding two years and a fine not exceeding two hundred thousand baht.” (Sections 326 and 328 as amended by the Act Amending the Criminal Code (No. 11), B.E. 2535 (1992).) · Section 333, paragraph one: “The offenses in this chapter are compoundable offenses.” Paragraph two: “If the injured person in an offense of defamation dies before lodging a complaint, the father, mother, spouse or child of the injured person may lodge the complaint and shall be deemed to be the injured person.” English wording based on the Thailand Law Library text (unofficial translation).
    Thai original: ประมวลกฎหมายอาญา มาตรา ๓๒๖ “ผู้ใดใส่ความผู้อื่นต่อบุคคลที่สาม โดยประการที่น่าจะทำให้ผู้อื่นนั้นเสียชื่อเสียง ถูกดูหมิ่น หรือถูกเกลียดชัง ผู้นั้นกระทำความผิดฐานหมิ่นประมาท ต้องระวางโทษจำคุกไม่เกินหนึ่งปี หรือปรับไม่เกินสองหมื่นบาท หรือทั้งจำทั้งปรับ” · มาตรา ๓๒๘ “ถ้าความผิดฐานหมิ่นประมาทได้กระทำโดยการโฆษณาด้วยเอกสาร ภาพวาด ภาพระบายสี ภาพยนตร์ ภาพหรือตัวอักษรที่ทำให้ปรากฏไม่ว่าด้วยวิธีใด ๆ แผ่นเสียง หรือสิ่งบันทึกเสียง บันทึกภาพ หรือบันทึกอักษร กระทำโดยการกระจายเสียง หรือการกระจายภาพ หรือโดยกระทำการป่าวประกาศด้วยวิธีอื่น ผู้กระทำต้องระวางโทษจำคุกไม่เกินสองปี และปรับไม่เกินสองแสนบาท” (มาตรา ๓๒๖ และ ๓๒๘ แก้ไขเพิ่มเติมโดยพระราชบัญญัติแก้ไขเพิ่มเติมประมวลกฎหมายอาญา (ฉบับที่ ๑๑) พ.ศ. ๒๕๓๕) · มาตรา ๓๓๓ วรรคหนึ่ง “ความผิดในหมวดนี้เป็นความผิดอันยอมความได้” วรรคสอง “ถ้าผู้เสียหายในความผิดฐานหมิ่นประมาทตายเสียก่อนร้องทุกข์ ให้บิดา มารดา คู่สมรสหรือบุตรของผู้เสียหายร้องทุกข์ได้ และให้ถือว่าเป็นผู้เสียหาย”
  2. ↩ Criminal Code, Section 329: “Whoever, in good faith, expresses any opinion or statement: (1) by way of self-justification or defense, or for the protection of a legitimate interest; (2) as an official in the exercise of their functions; (3) by way of fair comment on any person or thing subjected to public criticism; or (4) by way of fair report of the open proceedings of any court or meeting, shall not be guilty of defamation.” (unofficial translation)
    Thai original: ประมวลกฎหมายอาญา มาตรา ๓๒๙ “ผู้ใดแสดงความคิดเห็นหรือข้อความใดโดยสุจริต (๑) เพื่อความชอบธรรม ป้องกันตนหรือป้องกันส่วนได้เสียเกี่ยวกับตนตามคลองธรรม (๒) ในฐานะเป็นเจ้าพนักงานปฏิบัติการตามหน้าที่ (๓) ติชมด้วยความเป็นธรรม ซึ่งบุคคลหรือสิ่งใดอันเป็นวิสัยของประชาชนย่อมกระทำ หรือ (๔) ในการแจ้งข่าวด้วยความเป็นธรรมเรื่องการดำเนินการอันเปิดเผยในศาลหรือในการประชุม ผู้นั้นไม่มีความผิดฐานหมิ่นประมาท”
  3. ↩ Supreme Court Judgment No. 1724/2543 (Criminal Code, Sections 328, 329 (1) and 329 (3)), headnote: “The second defendant wrote an article about the plaintiff that was printed in newspaper K., comparing the plaintiff with another person, describing that person as having the true spirit of a teacher, whereas the plaintiff should rather be called a person hired to teach, because the plaintiff’s conduct was the opposite of that person’s, as different as heaven and earth. … This is a comparison, and its meaning leads others who read, hear or listen to it to feel and understand that the plaintiff’s conduct is bad. … Even though some passages explain and rebut matters the plaintiff had alleged, which could reasonably be regarded as an expression of opinion or statement in good faith by way of self-justification or defense, or for the protection of a legitimate interest, … and even though the second defendant’s article also explains the cooperative system, when read as a whole it cannot be regarded as fair comment on any person or thing subjected to public criticism. The act of the second defendant is the offense of defamation against the plaintiff.” (unofficial translation) (Supreme Court judgment database, deka.supremecourt.or.th, checked 26 September 2026)
    Thai original: คำพิพากษาศาลฎีกาที่ 1724/2543 (ป.อ. มาตรา 328, 329 (1), 329 (3)) ย่อคำพิพากษา: “จำเลยที่ 2 ได้เขียนบทความเกี่ยวกับโจทก์ลงพิมพ์ในหนังสือพิมพ์ ก.เปรียบเทียบโจทก์กับบุคคลอีกคนหนึ่งว่ามีจิตวิญญาณของครูโดยแท้ ส่วนโจทก์น่าจะเรียกว่าผู้รับจ้างสอนมากกว่า เพราะมีพฤติกรรมตรงกันข้ามกับบุคคลดังกล่าวราวฟ้ากับดิน … เป็นการเปรียบเทียบและมีความหมายให้ผู้อื่นที่ได้อ่าน ได้ยินหรือได้ฟังเกิดความรู้สึกและเข้าใจต่อตัวโจทก์ว่ามีพฤติกรรมไปในทางไม่ดี … แม้ข้อความบางตอนเป็นการชี้แจงตอบโต้ถึงเรื่องที่โจทก์กล่าวหาอันพอจะถือได้ว่าเป็นการแสดงความคิดเห็นหรือข้อความโดยสุจริตเพื่อความชอบธรรมป้องกันตนหรือส่วนได้เสียเกี่ยวกับตนตามคลองธรรม … แม้บทความของจำเลยที่ 2 จะชี้แจงถึงระบบสหกรณ์อยู่ด้วย แต่เมื่ออ่านประกอบกันแล้วถือไม่ได้ว่าเป็นการติชมด้วยความเป็นธรรมซึ่งบุคคลหรือสิ่งใดอันเป็นวิสัยของประชาชนย่อมกระทำการกระทำของจำเลยที่ 2 เป็นความผิดฐานหมิ่นประมาทโจทก์” (ฐานข้อมูลคำพิพากษาศาลฎีกา deka.supremecourt.or.th ตรวจ 26 กันยายน 2569)
  4. ↩ Criminal Code, Section 330: “In a case of defamation, if the person accused of the offense can prove that the matter alleged to be defamatory is true, that person shall not be punished. Such proof shall not, however, be allowed if the matter alleged to be defamatory is an imputation concerning a personal matter and the proof would not benefit the public.” (unofficial translation)
    Thai original: ประมวลกฎหมายอาญา มาตรา ๓๓๐ “ในกรณีหมิ่นประมาท ถ้าผู้ถูกหาว่ากระทำความผิด พิสูจน์ได้ว่าข้อที่หาว่าเป็นหมิ่นประมาทนั้นเป็นความจริง ผู้นั้นไม่ต้องรับโทษ แต่ห้ามไม่ให้พิสูจน์ ถ้าข้อที่หาว่าเป็นหมิ่นประมาทนั้นเป็นการใส่ความในเรื่องส่วนตัว และการพิสูจน์จะไม่เป็นประโยชน์แก่ประชาชน”
  5. ↩ Civil and Commercial Code, Section 423, paragraph one: “A person who, contrary to the truth, asserts or circulates as a fact that which is injurious to the reputation or the credit of another, or the earnings or prosperity of the latter in any other manner, shall compensate the other for any damage arising therefrom, even if he does not know of its untruth, provided he ought to have known it.” Paragraph two: “A person who makes a communication the untruth of which is unknown to him does not thereby render himself liable to make compensation if he or the receiver of the communication has a rightful interest in it.” (Checked against legardy.com on 26 September 2026. The wording “statement contrary to the truth” matches the wording used in Supreme Court Judgment No. 3023/2533 on the Supreme Court judgment database, whereas Supreme Court Judgment No. 7055/2539 uses “statement contrary to the facts”.) English wording based on the Thailand Law Library text (unofficial translation).
    Thai original: ประมวลกฎหมายแพ่งและพาณิชย์ มาตรา ๔๒๓ วรรคหนึ่ง “ผู้ใดกล่าวหรือไขข่าวแพร่หลายซึ่งข้อความอันฝ่าฝืนต่อความจริง เป็นที่เสียหายแก่ชื่อเสียงหรือเกียรติคุณของบุคคลอื่นก็ดี หรือเป็นที่เสียหายแก่ทางทำมาหาได้หรือทางเจริญของเขาโดยประการอื่นก็ดี ท่านว่าผู้นั้นจะต้องใช้ค่าสินไหมทดแทนให้แก่เขาเพื่อความเสียหายอย่างใด ๆ อันเกิดแต่การนั้น แม้ทั้งเมื่อตนมิได้รู้ว่าข้อความนั้นไม่จริง แต่หากควรจะรู้ได้” วรรคสอง “ผู้ใดส่งข่าวสารอันตนมิได้รู้ว่าเป็นความไม่จริง หากว่าตนเองหรือผู้รับข่าวสารนั้นมีทางได้เสียโดยชอบในการนั้นด้วยแล้ว ท่านว่าเพียงที่ส่งข่าวสารเช่นนั้นหาทำให้ผู้นั้นต้องรับผิดใช้ค่าสินไหมทดแทนไม่” (ตรวจเทียบ legardy.com 26 กันยายน 2569 และถ้อยคำ “ข้อความอันฝ่าฝืนต่อความจริง” ตรงกับที่คำพิพากษาศาลฎีกาที่ 3023/2533 บนฐานข้อมูลคำพิพากษาศาลฎีกาใช้ ส่วนคำพิพากษาศาลฎีกาที่ 7055/2539 ใช้ว่า “ข้อความอันฝ่าฝืนต่อความเป็นจริง”)
  6. ↩ Supreme Court Judgment No. 7055/2539 (Civil and Commercial Code, Section 423), headnote: “Caffeine is harmful to health; whatever drug formulation it is mixed into, the public should not be left to buy and take it on their own as they please. … Read as a whole, the statement means only that the drugs in question are dangerous to the body and may be fatal; it does not mean that taking them will cause immediate death. It merely conveys to the public that there is a risk of harm that may result from consuming the two drugs, which contain caffeine. … The third defendant’s use of the words ‘a new pep-up drug’ for the plaintiff’s drug would be understood to mean that consuming the plaintiff’s drug makes the body strong, lively and full of vigor; its meaning is not clear enough for readers to understand it as a sexual stimulant. As for the statement ‘the plaintiff’s drug is also suspected of being an imitation amphetamine’, the third defendant made it by way of comparison and did not in any way assert that the plaintiff’s drug is an amphetamine. Accordingly, the statement printed by the third defendant is not a statement contrary to the facts and is therefore not a wrongful act against the plaintiff.” (unofficial translation) (deka.supremecourt.or.th, checked 26 September 2026)
    Thai original: คำพิพากษาศาลฎีกาที่ 7055/2539 (ป.พ.พ. มาตรา 423) ย่อคำพิพากษา: “คาเฟอีนเป็นอันตรายต่อสุขภาพร่างกายไม่ว่าจะผสมอยู่ในตำรับยาใด ก็ไม่สมควรที่จะปล่อยให้ประชาชนซื้อหารับประทานเองตามใจชอบ … เมื่ออ่านข้อความทั้งหมดแล้ว คงมีความหมายแต่เพียงว่ายาดังกล่าวเป็นยาอันตรายต่อร่างกายและอาจถึงแก่ชีวิตได้ หาใช่มีความหมายว่ารับประทานแล้วจะเกิดผลให้ต้องตายในทันทีไม่แต่เป็นการสื่อความหมายให้ประชาชนทราบว่ามีความเสี่ยงต่อภัยอันตรายที่อาจได้รับจากการบริโภคยาสองชนิดดังกล่าวที่มีส่วนผสมของคาเฟอีนอยู่ด้วยเท่านั้น … การที่จำเลยที่ 3 ใช้ข้อความว่า "เป็นยาปลุกคึกน้องใหม่" กับยาของโจทก์ดังกล่าวย่อมเป็นที่เข้าใจได้ว่าหากบริโภคยาของโจทก์แล้วร่างกายแข็งแรงกระปรี้กระเปร่าคึกคะนอง ยังไม่มีความหมายชัดเจนพอให้ผู้อ่านเข้าใจว่าเป็นยาปลุกกำหนัดทางเพศ สำหรับข้อความที่ว่า "ยังถูกเพ่งเล็งว่ายาของโจทก์เป็นยาม้าเทียม" เมื่อจำเลยที่ 3 ได้กล่าวเป็นทำนองยกขึ้นเปรียบเทียบและมิได้เป็นการกล่าวยืนยันว่ายาของโจทก์เป็นยาม้าแต่อย่างใด ดังนี้ ข้อความที่จำเลยที่ 3 ลงพิมพ์ไปนั้นไม่เป็นข้อความอันฝ่าฝืนต่อความเป็นจริง จึงไม่เป็นการละเมิดต่อโจทก์” (deka.supremecourt.or.th ตรวจ 26 กันยายน 2569)
  7. ↩ Computer-related Crime Act B.E. 2550 (2007), Section 14 (as amended by Section 8 of the Computer-related Crime Act (No. 2) B.E. 2560 (2017)), paragraph one: “Any person who commits any of the following offenses shall be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding five years or a fine not exceeding one hundred thousand baht, or both: (1) dishonestly or deceitfully bringing into a computer system distorted or forged computer data, whether wholly or partly, or false computer data, in a manner likely to cause damage to the public, which is not an offense of defamation under the Criminal Code; (2) bringing into a computer system false computer data in a manner likely to cause damage to the maintenance of national security, public safety, the country’s economic security or the country’s infrastructure serving the public interest, or to cause panic among the public; (3) bringing into a computer system any computer data constituting an offense relating to the security of the Kingdom or an offense relating to terrorism under the Criminal Code; (4) bringing into a computer system any computer data of an obscene nature, where that computer data may be accessible to the general public; (5) disseminating or forwarding computer data, knowing it to be computer data under (1), (2), (3) or (4).” Paragraph two: “If an offense under paragraph one (1) is committed not against the public but against a particular person, the offender, or the person who disseminates or forwards such computer data, shall be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding three years or a fine not exceeding sixty thousand baht, or both, and the offense shall be a compoundable offense.” (unofficial translation)
    Thai original: พระราชบัญญัติว่าด้วยการกระทำความผิดเกี่ยวกับคอมพิวเตอร์ พ.ศ. ๒๕๕๐ มาตรา ๑๔ (แก้ไขเพิ่มเติมโดยพระราชบัญญัติว่าด้วยการกระทำความผิดเกี่ยวกับคอมพิวเตอร์ (ฉบับที่ ๒) พ.ศ. ๒๕๖๐ มาตรา ๘) วรรคหนึ่ง “ผู้ใดกระทำความผิดที่ระบุไว้ดังต่อไปนี้ ต้องระวางโทษจำคุกไม่เกินห้าปีหรือปรับไม่เกินหนึ่งแสนบาท หรือทั้งจำทั้งปรับ (๑) โดยทุจริต หรือโดยหลอกลวง นำเข้าสู่ระบบคอมพิวเตอร์ซึ่งข้อมูลคอมพิวเตอร์ที่บิดเบือนหรือปลอมไม่ว่าทั้งหมดหรือบางส่วน หรือข้อมูลคอมพิวเตอร์อันเป็นเท็จ โดยประการที่น่าจะเกิดความเสียหายแก่ประชาชน อันมิใช่การกระทำความผิดฐานหมิ่นประมาทตามประมวลกฎหมายอาญา (๒) นำเข้าสู่ระบบคอมพิวเตอร์ซึ่งข้อมูลคอมพิวเตอร์อันเป็นเท็จ โดยประการที่น่าจะเกิดความเสียหายต่อการรักษาความมั่นคงปลอดภัยของประเทศ ความปลอดภัยสาธารณะ ความมั่นคงในทางเศรษฐกิจของประเทศ หรือโครงสร้างพื้นฐานอันเป็นประโยชน์สาธารณะของประเทศ หรือก่อให้เกิดความตื่นตระหนกแก่ประชาชน (๓) นำเข้าสู่ระบบคอมพิวเตอร์ซึ่งข้อมูลคอมพิวเตอร์ใด ๆ อันเป็นความผิดเกี่ยวกับความมั่นคงแห่งราชอาณาจักรหรือความผิดเกี่ยวกับการก่อการร้ายตามประมวลกฎหมายอาญา (๔) นำเข้าสู่ระบบคอมพิวเตอร์ซึ่งข้อมูลคอมพิวเตอร์ใด ๆ ที่มีลักษณะอันลามกและข้อมูลคอมพิวเตอร์นั้นประชาชนทั่วไปอาจเข้าถึงได้ (๕) เผยแพร่หรือส่งต่อซึ่งข้อมูลคอมพิวเตอร์โดยรู้อยู่แล้วว่าเป็นข้อมูลคอมพิวเตอร์ตาม (๑) (๒) (๓) หรือ (๔)” วรรคสอง “ถ้าการกระทำความผิดตามวรรคหนึ่ง (๑) มิได้กระทำต่อประชาชน แต่เป็นการกระทำต่อบุคคลใดบุคคลหนึ่ง ผู้กระทำ ผู้เผยแพร่หรือส่งต่อซึ่งข้อมูลคอมพิวเตอร์ดังกล่าวต้องระวางโทษจำคุกไม่เกินสามปีหรือปรับไม่เกินหกหมื่นบาท หรือทั้งจำทั้งปรับ และให้เป็นความผิดอันยอมความได้”
  8. ↩ Criminal Code, Section 96: “Subject to Section 95, in the case of a compoundable offense, if the injured person does not lodge a complaint within three months from the date on which the injured person knew of the offense and the identity of the offender, the case is barred by prescription.” (unofficial translation)
    Thai original: ประมวลกฎหมายอาญา มาตรา ๙๖ “ภายใต้บังคับมาตรา ๙๕ ในกรณีความผิดอันยอมความได้ ถ้าผู้เสียหายมิได้ร้องทุกข์ภายในสามเดือนนับแต่วันที่รู้เรื่องความผิดและรู้ตัวผู้กระทำความผิด เป็นอันขาดอายุความ”
  9. ↩ Defamation Act 2013 (United Kingdom), section 1: “(1) A statement is not defamatory unless its publication has caused or is likely to cause serious harm to the reputation of the claimant. (2) For the purposes of this section, harm to the reputation of a body that trades for profit is not “serious harm” unless it has caused or is likely to cause the body serious financial loss.” Section 3(1)–(5): “(1) It is a defence to an action for defamation for the defendant to show that the following conditions are met. (2) The first condition is that the statement complained of was a statement of opinion. (3) The second condition is that the statement complained of indicated, whether in general or specific terms, the basis of the opinion. (4) The third condition is that an honest person could have held the opinion on the basis of— (a) any fact which existed at the time the statement complained of was published; (b) anything asserted to be a fact in a privileged statement published before the statement complained of. (5) The defence is defeated if the claimant shows that the defendant did not hold the opinion.” (legislation.gov.uk, checked 26 September 2026)
  10. ↩ Strafgesetzbuch (StGB) § 193 Wahrnehmung berechtigter Interessen: „Tadelnde Urteile über wissenschaftliche, künstlerische oder gewerbliche Leistungen, desgleichen Äußerungen oder Tathandlungen nach § 192a, welche zur Ausführung oder Verteidigung von Rechten oder zur Wahrnehmung berechtigter Interessen vorgenommen werden, sowie Vorhaltungen und Rügen der Vorgesetzten gegen ihre Untergebenen, dienstliche Anzeigen oder Urteile von seiten eines Beamten und ähnliche Fälle sind nur insofern strafbar, als das Vorhandensein einer Beleidigung aus der Form der Äußerung oder aus den Umständen, unter welchen sie geschah, hervorgeht.“ · Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch (BGB) § 824 Kreditgefährdung: „(1) Wer der Wahrheit zuwider eine Tatsache behauptet oder verbreitet, die geeignet ist, den Kredit eines anderen zu gefährden oder sonstige Nachteile für dessen Erwerb oder Fortkommen herbeizuführen, hat dem anderen den daraus entstehenden Schaden auch dann zu ersetzen, wenn er die Unwahrheit zwar nicht kennt, aber kennen muss. (2) Durch eine Mitteilung, deren Unwahrheit dem Mitteilenden unbekannt ist, wird dieser nicht zum Schadensersatz verpflichtet, wenn er oder der Empfänger der Mitteilung an ihr ein berechtigtes Interesse hat.“ (gesetze-im-internet.de, checked 26 September 2026)
  11. ↩ 15 U.S.C. § 45b (b) (1): “Except as provided in paragraphs (2) and (3), a provision of a form contract is void from the inception of such contract if such provision— (A) prohibits or restricts the ability of an individual who is a party to the form contract to engage in a covered communication; (B) imposes a penalty or fee against an individual who is a party to the form contract for engaging in a covered communication; or (C) transfers or requires an individual who is a party to the form contract to transfer to any person any intellectual property rights in review or feedback content, with the exception of a non-exclusive license to use the content, that the individual may have in any otherwise lawful covered communication about such person or the goods or services provided by such person.” (b) (2): “Nothing in paragraph (1) shall be construed to affect— … (B) any civil cause of action for defamation, libel, or slander, or any similar cause of action; (C) any party’s right to remove or refuse to display publicly on an Internet website or webpage owned, operated, or otherwise controlled by such party any content of a covered communication that— … (iii) is clearly false or misleading” (law.cornell.edu, checked 26 September 2026)
  12. ↩ Judith A. Chevalier and Dina Mayzlin, “The Effect of Word of Mouth on Sales: Online Book Reviews,” Journal of Marketing Research 43(3): 345–354 (2006) DOI 10.1509/jmkr.43.3.345; abstract: “We examine the effect of consumer reviews on relative sales of books on Amazon.com and BarnesandNoble.com. We find that 1) reviews are overwhelmingly positive at both sites, but there are more reviews and longer reviews at Amazon.com, 2) an improvement in a book's reviews leads to an increase in relative sales at that site, and 3) the impact of 1-star reviews is greater than the impact of 5-star reviews.” (abstract read in the NBER Working Paper 10148 version at nber.org, checked 26 September 2026)
  13. ↩ Dina Mayzlin, Yaniv Dover and Judith Chevalier, “Promotional Reviews: An Empirical Investigation of Online Review Manipulation,” American Economic Review 104(8): 2421–2455 (2014) DOI 10.1257/aer.104.8.2421; abstract: “We examine the differences in reviews for a given hotel between two sites: Expedia.com (only a customer can post a review) and TripAdvisor.com (anyone can post). … We demonstrate that the hotel neighbors of hotels with a high incentive to fake have more negative reviews on TripAdvisor relative to Expedia; hotels with a high incentive to fake have more positive reviews on TripAdvisor relative to Expedia.” (aeaweb.org, checked 26 September 2026)

The texts of Sections 96, 326, 328, 329, 330 and 333 of the Criminal Code and Section 14 of the Computer-related Crime Act were checked against the legal database of the Office of the Council of State and comparison sources on 24 and 25 September 2026. Section 423 of the Civil and Commercial Code was checked against legardy.com and the wording used in Supreme Court judgments on 26 September 2026. Supreme Court Judgments Nos. 1724/2543 and 7055/2539 were checked against the Supreme Court judgment database (deka.supremecourt.or.th); foreign statutes were checked against legislation.gov.uk, gesetze-im-internet.de and law.cornell.edu; and academic works were read on nber.org and aeaweb.org. All of these were checked on 26 September 2026.

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